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{{Wikipedia excerpt|Veganism|History}}
{{Wikipedia excerpt|Veganism|1}}


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Revision as of 19:26, 30 January 2024

Use this template to show the lead section (or any other section) of Wikipedia articles. Based on Appropedia's Wikipedia Excerpt template.

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Section

{{Wikipedia excerpt|Veganism|1}}
From Wikipedia – Veganism

Origins

A vegan symbol
Part of a series on
Veganism

Groups

Ideas

Related

Historical background

Further information: History of vegetarianism

Vegetarianism can be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization in 3300–1300 BCE in the Indian subcontinent,[1][2][3] particularly in northern and western ancient India.[4] Early vegetarians included Indian philosophers such as Parshavnatha, Mahavira, Acharya Kundakunda, Umaswati, Samantabhadra, and Valluvar; the Indian emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka; Greek philosophers such as Empedocles, Theophrastus, Plutarch, Plotinus, and Porphyry; and the Roman poet Ovid and the playwright Seneca the Younger.[5][6] The Greek sage Pythagoras may have advocated an early form of strict vegetarianism,[7][8] but his life is so obscure that it is disputed whether he ever advocated any form of vegetarianism.[9] He almost certainly prohibited his followers from eating beans[9] and wearing woolen garments.[9] Eudoxus of Cnidus, a student of Archytas and Plato, writes, "Pythagoras was distinguished by such purity and so avoided killing and killers that he not only abstained from animal foods, but even kept his distance from cooks and hunters".[9] One of the earliest known vegans was the Arab poet al-Maʿarri, famous for his poem "I No Longer Steal From Nature". (c. 973 – c. 1057).[10][a] Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls, animal welfare, and the view—espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium ("On Abstinence from Animal Food", c. 268 – c. 270)—that if humans deserve justice, then so do animals.[5]

Development in the 19th century

photograph of Fruitlands
Fruitlands; a short-lived vegan community established in 1844 by Amos Bronson Alcott in Harvard, Massachusetts

Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century Britain and the United States.[12] A minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely.[13] In 1813, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley published A Vindication of Natural Diet, advocating "abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors", and in 1815, William Lambe, a London physician, said that his "water and vegetable diet" could cure anything from tuberculosis to acne.[14] Lambe called animal food a "habitual irritation" and argued that "milk eating and flesh-eating are but branches of a common system and they must stand or fall together".[15] Sylvester Graham's meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, and bread made at home with stoneground flour—became popular as a health remedy in the 1830s in the United States.[16] The first known vegan cookbook was Asenath Nicholson's Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians, published in 1849.[17]

Several vegan communities were established around this time. In Massachusetts, Amos Bronson Alcott, father of the novelist Louisa May Alcott, opened the Temple School in 1834 and Fruitlands in 1844,[18][b] and in England, James Pierrepont Greaves founded the Concordium, a vegan community at Alcott House on Ham Common, in 1838.[20][21]

Vegetarian etymology

The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet.[22] Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable and the suffix -arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as in humanitarian).[23][24] The earliest known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838–1839.[c]

Formation of the Vegetarian Society

Further information: Vegetarian Society § History
Northwood Villa; the site of the 1847 Ramsgate conference where the Vegetarian Society was founded.

In 1843, members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food,[27] led by Sophia Chichester, a wealthy benefactor of Alcott House.[28] Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent.[29] The Medical Times and Gazette in London reported in 1884:

There are two kinds of Vegetarians—one an extreme form, the members of which eat no animal food products what-so-ever; and a less extreme sect, who do not object to eggs, milk, or fish. The Vegetarian Society ... belongs to the latter more moderate division.[13]

An article in the Society's magazine, the Vegetarian Messenger, in 1851 discussed alternatives to shoe leather, which suggests the presence of vegans within the membership who rejected animal use entirely, not only in diet.[30] Henry S. Salt's 1886 A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays asserts, "It is quite true that most—not all—Food Reformers admit into their diet such animal food as milk, butter, cheese, and eggs..."[31] Salt also argued that the primary objective of the vegetarian movement should be to eliminate meat, while contending that dairy and eggs are also unnecessary and could be phased out over time.[32]

Development in the 20th century

photograph of Gandhi and Salt
Mahatma Gandhi, London Vegetarian Society, 20 November 1931, with Henry S. Salt on his right[d]

C. W. Daniel published an early vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes, in 1910.[34] The consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger; it appears from the correspondence pages that many opponents of veganism were vegetarians.[34][35]

During a visit to London in 1931, Mahatma Gandhi—who had joined the London Vegetarian Society's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891—gave a speech to the Society arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a matter of morality, not health.[33][36] Lacto-vegetarians acknowledged the ethical consistency of the vegan position but regarded a vegan diet as impracticable and were concerned that it might be an impediment to spreading vegetarianism if vegans found themselves unable to participate in social circles where no non-animal food was available. This became the predominant view of the Vegetarian Society, which in 1935 stated: "The lacto-vegetarians, on the whole, do not defend the practice of consuming the dairy products except on the ground of expediency."[34]

Vegan etymology

External images
image icon The Vegan News, first edition, 1944
image icon Donald Watson, front row, fourth left, 1947[37]

In August 1944, several members of the Vegetarian Society asked that a section of its newsletter be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was denied, Donald Watson, secretary of the Leicester branch, set up a new quarterly newsletter, The Vegan News, in November 1944, priced tuppence.[38] The word vegan was invented by Watson and Dorothy Morgan, a schoolteacher he later married.[39][40] The word is based on "the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'" because it marked, in Watson's words, "the beginning and end of vegetarian".[38][41] The Vegan News asked its readers if they could think of anything better than vegan to stand for "non-dairy vegetarian". They suggested allvega, neo-vegetarian, dairyban, vitan, benevore, sanivores, and beaumangeur.[38][42]

According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese, or milk".[43]

Founding of The Vegan Society

The first edition of The Vegan News attracted more than 100 letters, including from George Bernard Shaw, who resolved to give up eggs and dairy.[35] The Vegan Society held its first meeting in early November at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn, London. In attendance were Donald Watson, Elsie B. Shrigley, Fay K. Henderson, Alfred Hy Haffenden, Paul Spencer and Bernard Drake, with Mme Pataleewa (Barbara Moore, a Russian-British engineer) observing.[44] World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the founding of the Society, and the Society considers November World Vegan Month.[45][46]

photograph of Moore in 1961
Barbara Moore attended the first meeting of The Vegan Society as an observer.[44]

The Vegan News changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers.[47] It published recipes and a "vegan trade list" of animal-free products, such as toothpastes, shoe polishes, stationery and glue.[48] Vegan books appeared, including Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson (1946)[49][50] and Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo (1948).[51][52]

The Vegan Society soon made clear that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only in diet. In 1947, Watson wrote: "The vegan renounces it as superstitious that human life depends upon the exploitation of these creatures whose feelings are much the same as our own".[53] From 1948, The Vegan's front page read: "Advocating living without exploitation", and in 1951, the Society published its definition of veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals".[53][54] In 1956, its vice-president, Leslie Cross, founded the Plantmilk Society and in 1965, as Plantmilk Ltd and later Plamil Foods, it began production of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world.[55]

Spread to the United States

The first vegan society in the U.S. was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter.[56][57] In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa, "non-harming" in Sanskrit.[57][58][59]

  1. ^ Bajpai S (2011). The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times. Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA). ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8.
  2. ^ Spencer C (1996). The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism. Fourth Estate Classic House. pp. 33–68, 69–84. ISBN 978-0-87451-760-6.
  3. ^ Tähtinen U (1976). Ahimsa: Non-violence in Indian tradition. London: [1976], Rider and Company. ISBN 978-0-09-123340-2.
  4. ^ Singh U (2008). A History of Ancient and Early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 137. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  5. ^ a b Dombrowski DA (January 1984). "Vegetarianism and the Argument from Marginal Cases in Porphyry". Journal of the History of Ideas. 45 (1): 141–143. doi:10.2307/2709335. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2709335. PMID 11611354.

    Daniel A. Dombrowski, The Philosophy of Vegetarianism, University of Massachusetts Press, 1984, 2.

  6. ^ For Valluvar, see Kamil Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India ISBN 978-90-04-03591-1, E. J. Brill, 1973, pp. 156–171.
    P. S. Sundaram, Tiruvalluvar Kural, Penguin, 1990, p. 13. ISBN 978-0-14-400009-8
    A. A. Manavalan, Essays and Tributes on Tirukkural (1886–1986 AD) (1 ed.). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies, 2009, pp. 127–129.
  7. ^ Kahn CH (2001). Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-87220-575-8.
  8. ^ Cornelli G, McKirahan R (2013). In Search of Pythagoreanism: Pythagoreanism as an Historiographical Category. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. p. 168. ISBN 978-3-11-030650-7.
  9. ^ a b c d Zhmud L (2012). Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans. Translated by Windle K, Ireland R. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 200, 235. ISBN 978-0-19-928931-8.
  10. ^ Margoliouth DS (15 March 2011). "Art. XI.—Abu'l-'Alā al- Ma'arrī's Correspondence on Vegetarianism". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 34 (2): 289–332. doi:10.1017/s0035869x0002921x. JSTOR 25208409. S2CID 163229071.
  11. ^ Geert Jan van Gelder, Gregor Schoeler, "Introduction", in Abu l-Ala al-Maarri, The Epistle of Forgiveness Or A Pardon to Enter the Garden, Volume 2, New York and London: New York University Press, 2016, xxvii. ISBN 978-1-4798-3494-5
  12. ^ James Gregory, Of Victorians and Vegetarians, I. B. Tauris, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84511-379-7
  13. ^ a b "International Health Exhibition", The Medical Times and Gazette, 24 May 1884, 712.
  14. ^ James C. Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reformers, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014, 69–70: "Word of these cures of pimples, consumption, and virtually all ailments in between was widely distributed by his several publications ..."

    Percy Bysshe Shelley, A Vindication of Natural Diet, London: F. Pitman, 1884 [1813]; William Lambe, Joel Shew, Water and Vegetable Diet, New York: Fowler's and Wells, 1854 [London, 1815].

  15. ^ Lambe 1854, 55, 94.
  16. ^ Andrew F. Smith, Eating History, New York: Columbia University Press, 2013, 29–35 (33 for popularity); Whorton 2014, 38ff.
  17. ^ "Key facts". The Vegan Society. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  18. ^ Hart 1995, 14; Francis, Fruitlands: The Alcott Family and their Search for Utopia, 2010.
  19. ^ William A. Alcott, Vegetable Diet: As Sanctioned by Medical Men and By Experience in All Ages, Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1838; Vegetable Diet, New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1851.
  20. ^ J. E. M. Latham, Search for a New Eden, Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999, 168.
  21. ^ Gregory 2007, 22.
  22. ^ Rod Preece, Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2008, 12 ISBN 978-0-7748-1510-9
  23. ^ "Definition of Vegetable". Merriam-Webster. 2005. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  24. ^ Davis J (1 June 2011). "The Vegetus Myth". VegSource. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2018. Vegetarian can equally be seen as derived from the late Latin 'vegetabile' – meaning plant – as in Regnum Vegetabile / Plant Kingdom. Hence vegetable, vegetation – and vegetarian. Though others suggest that 'vegetable' itself is derived from 'vegetus'. But it's very unlikely that the originators went through all that either – they really did just join 'vegetable+arian', as the dictionaries have said all along.
  25. ^ Fanny Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1863, 197–198.
  26. ^ The Healthian, 1(5), April 1842, 34–35.
    Davis J. "History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian'". International Vegetarian Union. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2018.
    Davis J. "History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian' (Appendix 2 – The 1839 journal of Fanny Kemble)". International Vegetarian Union. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2018.

    John Davis, "Prototype Vegans", The Vegan, Winter 2010, 22–23 (also here).

  27. ^ Axon WE (December 1893). "A Forerunner of the Vegetarian Society". Vegetarian Messenger. Manchester, England: Vegetarian Society. pp. 453–55. Archived from the original on 24 February 2018. Retrieved 24 February 2018 – via International Vegetarian Union.
  28. ^ Latham J (September 1999). "The political and the personal: the radicalism of Sophia Chichester and Georgiana Fletcher Welch". Women's History Review. 8 (3): 469–487. doi:10.1080/09612029900200216. PMID 22619793.
  29. ^ Grumett D, Muers R (2010). Theology on the Menu: Asceticism, Meat and Christian Diet. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-135-18832-0.
  30. ^ "History of Vegetarianism: The Origin of Some Words", International Vegetarian Union, 6 April 2010.
  31. ^ Stephens HS (1886). "5: Sir Henry Thompson on "Diet."". A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays . p. 57.
  32. ^ "History of Vegetarianism - Henry S. Salt (1851-1939)". International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  33. ^ a b Gandhi M (20 November 1931). "The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism". EVU News (Speech). Vol. 1998, no. 1. London, England (published 1998). pp. 11–14. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 9 March 2018 – via International Vegetarian Union and London Vegetarian Society.
  34. ^ a b c Leneman L (1999). "No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain, 1909–1944". Society & Animals. 7 (3): 219–228. doi:10.1163/156853099X00095.
  35. ^ a b Donald Watson, "The Early History of the Vegan Movement", The Vegan, Autumn 1965, 5–7; Donald Watson, Vegan News, first issue, November 1944.
  36. ^ Wolpert S (2002). Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–22, 161. ISBN 978-0-19-515634-8.
  37. ^ "11th IVU World Vegetarian Congress 1947", Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, International Vegetarian Union.
  38. ^ a b c Watson D (15 December 2002). "Interview with Donald Watson" (PDF) (Transcript). Interviewed by George D. Rodger. The Vegan Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
    Watson D (11 August 2004). "24 Carrot Award: Donald Watson". Vegetarians in Paradise (e-Zine). Vol. 6, no. 10. Interviewed by George D. Rodger. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018. I invited my early readers to suggest a more concise word to replace 'non-dairy vegetarian.' Some bizarre suggestions were made like 'dairyban, vitan, benevore, sanivore, beaumangeur', et cetera. I settled for my own word, 'vegan', containing the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'—'the beginning and end of vegetarian.' The word was accepted by the Oxford English Dictionary and no one has tried to improve it.
  39. ^ "Ripened by human determination. 70 years of The Vegan Society" (PDF). Vegan Society. p. 3. Retrieved 14 February 2021. Watson and his wife Dorothy came up with the word 'vegan'
  40. ^ Cite error: The named reference Davis2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  41. ^ Lowbridge C (30 December 2017). "Veganism: How a maligned movement went mainstream". BBC News. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  42. ^ Donald Watson, Vegan News, February 1945, 2–3.
  43. ^ Stepaniak 2000, 3.
  44. ^ a b Richard Farhall, "The First Fifty Years: 1944–1994", iii (full names of members on following pages), published with The Vegan, 10(3), Autumn 1994, between pp. 12 and 13.
  45. ^ "World Vegan Month". The Vegan Society. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018. Every November we celebrate World Vegan Day and World Vegan Month, as well as the formation of The Vegan Society.
  46. ^ "advertising framework for featured article, cites all of November as World Vegan Month. The Vegconomist. Accessed 11/1/2021". 29 October 2021.
  47. ^ The Vegan, 1(5), November 1945; for 500, The Vegan, 10(3), Autumn 1994, iv.
  48. ^ For an example of the vegan trade list, The Vegan, 2(2), Summer 1946, 6–7.
  49. ^ "Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson". Ernest Bell Library. July 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
  50. ^ HENDERSON FK (1946). Vegan Recipes, etc. H.H. Greaves: London. OCLC 559462905.
  51. ^ Joanne Stepaniak, The Vegan Sourcebook, McGraw Hill Professional, 2000, 5; The Vegan, Autumn 1949, 22.
  52. ^ Mayo K. Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children. OCLC 14663134.
  53. ^ a b Cole M (2014). "'The greatest cause on earth': The historical formation of veganism as an ethical practice". In Taylor N, Twine R (eds.). The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. Routledge. pp. 203–224. ISBN 978-1-135-10087-2.
  54. ^ Cross L (1951). "Veganism Defined". The Vegetarian World Forum. 5 (1): 6–7.
  55. ^ Ling A (Autumn 1986). "The Milk of Human Kindness". Vegan Views (Interview). Vol. 37, no. Autumn 1986. Interviewed by Harry Mather. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
    "Arthur Ling, Plamil". Plamil Foods. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
    "The Plantmilk Society", The Vegan, X(3), Winter 1956, 14–16.
  56. ^ Stepaniak 2000, 6–7; Linda Austin and Norm Hammond, Oceano, Arcadia Publishing, 2010, 39.
  57. ^ a b Dinshah F (2010). "American Vegan Society: 50 Years" (PDF). American Vegan. 2. Vol. 10, no. 1 (Summer 2010). Vineland, NJ: American Vegan Society. p. 31. ISSN 1536-3767. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  58. ^ Stepaniak 2000, 6–7; Preece 2008, 323.
  59. ^ "History". American Vegan Society. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2018.


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{{Wikipedia excerpt|Veganism|paragraphs=1}}
From Wikipedia – Veganism
"Vegan" redirects here. For notable vegans, see List of vegans. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Vegetarianism, Plant-based diet, Abolitionism, or Vigan.

Veganism
Vegan friendly icon
The symbol widely used to denote a vegan-friendly product
PronunciationVeganism /ˈviːɡənɪzəm/ VEE-gə-niz-əm
Vegan /ˈviːɡən/ VEE-gən[a]
DescriptionAvoiding the use of animal products, particularly in diet
Earliest proponents
Term coined byDorothy Morgan and Donald Watson (November 1944)[3][4]
Notable vegansList of vegans
Notable publicationsList of vegan media

Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals.[c] A person who practices veganism is known as a vegan.

The foundations of veganism include ethical, moral, environmental, health and humanitarian arguments. Veganism excludes all animal use, for example in food (meat, fish, eggs, milk and dairy products, honey), in clothing and industry (leather, wool, fur and some cosmetics), entertainment (zoos, exotic pets, circuses), or services (guide dogs, police dogs, hunting dogs, working animals, or animal testing, including medical experimentation).

A person who practices veganism may do so for personal health benefits or to reduce animal deaths, minimize animal suffering, or minimize their ecological footprint.

Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, grains and mushrooms are the basic elements of vegan food. Since ancient times individuals have been renouncing the consumption of products of animal origin, but the term "veganism" is modern: it was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson with the aim of differentiating it from vegetarianism, which rejects the consumption of meat but accepts the consumption of other products of animal origin, such as milk, dairy products and eggs.[3][15] Interest in veganism increased significantly in the 2010s.

  1. ^ "Definition of Veganism". Merriam-Webster.com. 25 April 2023. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  2. ^ "The definition of veganism". Dictionary.com. 2016. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  3. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference VeganSociety2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Adams CJ (2014). Never too late to go vegan: the over-50 guide to adopting and thriving on a plant-based diet. Patti Breitman, Virginia Messina. New York: The Experiment. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-61519-098-0. OCLC 864299353. In 1944, the word vegan (pronounced VEEgan) was coined. A group was forming and needed a name. Donald Watson and Dorothy Morgan, members of the group, were at a dance, discussing the need for a word that denoted the kind of vegetarian who used no animal products. What if the first three and last two letters of the word vegetarian were taken to describe people who at the time were called nondairy vegetarians? Morgan proposed the name; Watson liked it, as did the other members. Morgan and Watson married, and along with twenty-three other people, they founded the Vegan Society in England.
  5. ^ "Meaning of vegan". Infoplease.
  6. ^ Records of Buckinghamshire, Volume 3, BPC Letterpress, 1870, 68.
  7. ^ Karen Iacobbo, Michael Iacobbo, Vegetarian America: A History, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004, 3. ISBN 978-0-275-97519-7
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Latham1999p168 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Renier H (March 2012). "An Early Vegan: Lewis Gompertz". London Historians. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  10. ^ Richard Francis, Fruitlands: The Alcott Family and their Search for Utopia, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010, 11. ISBN 978-0-300-17790-9
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference WatsonInterviews was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Pedersen H, Staescu V (2014). "Conclusion: Future Directions for Critical Animal Studies". In Taylor N, Twine R (eds.). The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. Routledge. pp. 262–276. ISBN 978-1-135-10087-2.
  13. ^ Gary Steiner, 206 Animals and the Limits of Postmodernism, Columbia University Press, 2013.
  14. ^ Gary Francione, "Animal Welfare, Happy Meat and Veganism as the Moral Baseline", in David M. Kaplan, The Philosophy of Food, University of California Press, 2012 (169–189) 182. ISBN 978-0-231-16790-1
  15. ^ Davis J (2016). "The Origins of the Vegans: 1944–46" (PDF). Vegetarian Society. pp. 8, 12. Dorothy, nee Morgan, had passed away about ten years before Donald, having long since retired as head of a small village primary school. ... The Vegan Society AGM on Sunday November 10, 1946, at Friends House, Euston, London (TV Spring 1947 pp.4–5) was reminded that Donald Watson had already said he could not continue running everything himself (He had married Dorothy two weeks earlier).


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